Thursday, 29 March 2012

Hak Asasi Manusia


NAMA     : NURUL AINA PUTERI
NIM         : 113194033
KELAS    : P. KIMIA INTERNASIONAL 2011
UNIVERSITAS NEGERI SURABAYA


1.      Apakah yang dimaksud dengan HAM?

Jawab :
HAM (Hak Asasi Manusia) adalah  hak-hak yang dimiliki oleh setiap manusia sesuai dengan kodratnya yang telah dimiliki sejak manusia dalam kandungan, bila tidak ada hak tersebut, kita tidak dapat hidup sebagai manusia


2.      Jelaskan secara singkat sejarah HAM di dunia!

Jawab:
Perlindungan HAM telah dimulai oleh bangsa Inggris pada abad ke-13 (1215) dengan ditandatanganinya “Magna Charta” yang berisi hak yang diberikan kepada kaum bangsawan dan gereja. Kemudian tahun 1628 “Pettion of Rights” oleh Raja Charles I. Disusul oleh “Bill of Rights” yang ditandatangani oleh Raja William III pada tahun 1689. Setelah itu, filusuf-filusuf yaitu Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, dan Monstequieu, mempengaruhi perkembangan perlindungan hak asasi di Eropa, terutama di Perancis. Hingga pada akhirnya, tahun 1780, Rousseau melahirkan “Deklarasi hak manusia dan Negara”, “hak atas kebebasan”, “harta”, “keamanan”, dan “periawanan terhadap penindasan”. Setelah kejadian itu, perkembangan perlindungan hak asasi meluas ke Amerika. Penandatanganan naskah untuk memperjuangkan hak asasi oleh Negara Amerika dan Perancis terjadi pada tahun 1789, setelah itu di Amerika dikeluarkan undang-undang hak (Bill of Rights) yang pada akhirnya menjadi bagian dari undang-undang dasar Amerika pada tahun 1791.


3.      Jelaskan secara singkat munculnya HAM di Indonesia!

Jawab:
Dalam kebudayaan Indonesia telah ada makna tentang pengakuan hak asasi manusia. Yaitu dalam tradisi ‘Hak Pepe’, yaitu dimana hak warga desa diakui dan dihormati oleh penguasa, misalnya saja mengungkapkan pendapat. Sebelum ini, sebenarnya HAM di Indonesia sudah ada sejak lama, misalnya saja HAM di Sulawesi Selatan yang ditulis dalam buku-buku adat (Lontarak). Antara lain dinyatakan dalam buku Lontarak (Tomatindo di Lagana) bahwa apabila raja berselisih faham dengan Dewan Adat, maka Raja harus mengalah. Tetapi apabila para Dewam Adat sendiri berselisih, maka rakyatlah yang memustuskan. Pada dasarnya, asas hak asasi manusia di Indonesia telah lama diterapka. Dan dengan demikian pula dapat disimpulkan bahwa Hak Asasi Manusia telah lama lahir di Negara Indonesia. Dan munculnya HAM di Indonesia setelah kemerdekaan juga mula bersumber pada pancasila yaitu Hak Asasi Manusia mendapat jaminan kuat dari falsafah bangsa.Bersumber pada pancasila dimana Hak Asasi Manusia juga harus memperhatikan garis-garis yang telah ditentukan dalam falsafah pancasila. Dan pada saat ini HAM di Indonesia juga telah dicantumkan dalam UUD 1945.


4.      Bagaimana supaya HAM dapat berjalan dengan baik?

Jawab:
-     Megutamakan program penegakan hukum dan HAM yang harus dilakukan secara tegas, tidak diskriminatif dan konsisten.
-     Melaksanakan kegiatan internasional, secara bilateral, regional maupun multirateral.
-     Meningkatkan kualitas pendidikan di suatu wilayah (Negara) tentu akan meningkatkan pengetahuan, moral, dan sumber daya mausia negara itu sendiri. Sehingga, akan lebih mudah untuk menjalankan HAM (Hak Asasi Manusia) di suatu wilayah secara efisien dan otomatis.




5.      Berilah contoh kasus pelanggaran HAM yang ada di Indonesia saat ini!

Berikan komentar saudara!
Jawab:
Pelanggaran Hak Asasi Manusia terhadap anak.
Di Indonesia saat ini sedang banyak kasus yang menyimpang moral yang sebagian besar karna dipengaruhi oleh budaya luar yang masuk ke Indonesia, contohnya saja free-sex. Free-sex sekarang sangat marak di Indonesia, mulai dari kota-kota kecil hingga kota besar, yang sebagian besar memungkinkan adanya aborsi, pembuangan anak, penelantaran anak, dll. Bayi yang dibuang bahkan dibunuh adalah contoh pelanggaran Hak Asasi Manusia yang ada di Negara Indonesia ini. Dari kasus ini 68% bayi meninggal sedangkan sisanya masih hidup diasuh masyarakat atau dititip dipanti asuhan.


6.      Berilah contoh kasus pelanggaran HAM yang marak di dunia saat ini!

Berikan komentar saudara!
Jawab:
Contoh pelanggaran HAM yang ada di dunia, misalnya rasisme (perbedaan ras) dan human trafficking (perdagangan manusia).
Mengenai ‘rasisme’, di dunia ini, terutama bangsa kulit putih selalu membedakan bangsa kulit hitam. Bangsa kulit putih selalu menganggap ras/bangsanya lebih baik dibandingkan bangsa kulit hitam, sehingga membuat perbedaan dan pada akhirnya bangsa kulit hitam dikucilkan. Menurut saya ini adalah pelanggaran HAM yang termasuk berat, karena manusia diciptan dengan derajat yang sama di mata Tuhan. Seharusnya bangsa kulit hitam mendapat hak dan kehormatan yang sama, tapi ternyata tidak demikian. Dan tidak ada yang salah dengan kulit hitam.
Mengenai ‘human trafficking’ yaitu perdagangan ilegal manusia untuk tujuan reproduksiperbudakan, eksploitasi seksual komersial, kerja paksa, atau bentukmodern dari perbudakan. Dan mayoritas adalah wanita dan anak-anak. Telah diketahui bahwa hal seperti ini adalah bentuk pelanggaran HAM yang sangat marak di dunia, dan menurut saya, pelanggaran ini dapat dihentikan apabila ada kerja sama antara pemerintah dengan masyarakat dalam suatu Negara tersebut.

Monday, 26 March 2012

Schedules of Reinforcement


Schedules of Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, schedules of reinforcement are an important component of the learning process. When and how often we reinforce a behavior can have a dramatic impact on the strength and rate of the response.
A schedule of reinforcement is basically a rule stating which instances of a behavior will be reinforced. In some case, a behavior might be reinforced every time it occurs. Sometimes, a behavior might not be reinforced at all. Either positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement might be used, depending on the situation. In both cases, the goal of reinforcement is always to strengthen the behavior and increase the likelihood that it will occur again in the future.
In real-world settings, behaviors are probably not going to be reinforced each and every time they occur. For situations where you are purposely trying to train and reinforce an action, such as in the classroom, in sports or in animal training, you might opt to follow a specific reinforcement schedule. As you'll see below, some schedules are best suited to certain types of training situations. In some cases, training might call for starting out with one schedule and switching to another once the desired behavior has been taught.
Certain schedules of reinforcement may be more effective in specific situations. There are two types of reinforcement schedules:

1. Continuous Reinforcement

In continuous reinforcement, the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs. Generally, this schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning in order to create a strong association between the behavior and the response. Once the response if firmly attached, reinforcement is usually switched to a partial reinforcement schedule.

2. Partial Reinforcement

In partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part of the time. Learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more resistant toextinction.


There are four schedules of partial reinforcement:
1.      Fixed-ratio schedules are those where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer.


2.      Variable-ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule.


3.      Fixed-interval schedules are those where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer.


4.      Variable-interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.

Choosing a Schedule

Deciding when to reinforce a behavior can depend upon a number of factors. In cases where you are specifically trying to teach a new behavior, a continuous schedule is often a good choice. Once the behavior has been learned, switching to a partial schedule is often preferable.
Realistically, reinforcing a behavior every single time it occurs can be difficult and requires a great deal of attention and resources. Partial schedules not only tend to lead to behaviors that are more resistant to extinction, they also reduce the risk that the subject will become satiated. If the reinforcer being used is no longer desired or rewarding, the subject may stop performing the desired behavior.

Operant conditioning


Operant Conditioning 

Operant conditioning is a form of learning during which an individual modifies the occurrence and form of its own behavior due to theconsequences of the behavior. Operant conditioning is distinguished from classical conditioning (also called respondent conditioning) in that operant conditioning deals with the modification of "voluntary behavior" or operant behavior. Operant behavior "operates" on the environment and is maintained by its consequences, while classical conditioning deals with the conditioning of reflexive (reflex) behaviors which are elicited by antecedent conditions. Behaviors conditioned via a classical conditioning procedure are not maintained by consequences.
Reinforcement, Punishment, And Extinction
Reinforcement and punishment, the core tools of operant conditioning, are either positive (delivered following a response), or negative (withdrawn following a response). This creates a total of four basic consequences, with the addition of a fifth procedure known as extinction(i.e. no change in consequences following a response).
It is important to note that actors are not spoken of as being reinforced, punished, or extinguished; it is the actions that are reinforced, punished, or extinguished. Additionally, reinforcement, punishment, and extinction are not terms whose use is restricted to the laboratory. Naturally occurring consequences can also be said to reinforce, punish, or extinguish behavior and are not always delivered by people.
§  Reinforcement is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with greater frequency.
§  Punishment is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with less frequency.
§  Extinction is caused by the lack of any consequence following a behavior. When a behavior is inconsequential (i.e., producing neither favorable nor unfavorable consequences) it will occur with less frequency. When a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced with either positive or negative reinforcement, it leads to a decline in that behavior.
Four contexts of operant conditioning
Here the terms positive and negative are not used in their popular sense, but rather: positive refers to addition, and negative refers to subtraction.
What is added or subtracted may be either reinforcement or punishment. Hence positive punishment is sometimes a confusing term, as it denotes the "addition" of a stimulus or increase in the intensity of a stimulus that is aversive (such as spanking or an electric shock). The four procedures are:
1.     Positive reinforcement (Reinforcement): occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus that is appetitive or rewarding, increasing the frequency of that behavior. In the Skinner box experiment, a stimulus such as food or sugar solution can be delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever.
2.     Negative reinforcement (Escape): occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus, thereby increasing that behavior's frequency. In the Skinner box experiment, negative reinforcement can be a loud noise continuously sounding inside the rat's cage until it engages in the target behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is removed.
3.     Positive punishment (Punishment) (also called "Punishment by contingent stimulation"): occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus, such as introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.
4.     Negative punishment (Penalty) (also called "Punishment by contingent withdrawal"): occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.
Operant conditioning to change human behavior
1.     State Goal (aims for the study)
2.     Monitor Behavior (log conditions)
3.     Reinforce desired behavior(give reward for proper behavior)
4.     Reduce incentives to perform undesirable behavior
Also:
§  Avoidance learning is a type of learning in which a certain behavior results in the cessation of an aversive stimulus. For example, performing the behavior of shielding one's eyes when in the sunlight (or going outdoors) will help avoid the aversive stimulation of having light in one's eyes.
§  Extinction occurs when a behavior (response) that had previously been reinforced is no longer effective. In the Skinner box experiment, this is the rat pushing the lever and being rewarded with a food pellet several times, and then pushing the lever again and never receiving a food pellet again. Eventually the rat would cease pushing the lever.
§  Noncontingent reinforcement refers to delivery of reinforcing stimuli regardless of the organism's (aberrant) behavior. The idea is that the target behavior decreases because it is no longer necessary to receive the reinforcement. This typically entails time-based delivery of stimuli identified as maintaining aberrant behavior, which serves to decrease the rate of the target behavior. As no measured behavior is identified as being strengthened, there is controversy surrounding the use of the term noncontingent "reinforcement".
§  Shaping is a form of operant conditioning in which the increasingly accurate approximations of a desired response are reinforced.
§  Chaining is an instructional procedure which involves reinforcing individual responses occurring in a sequence to form a complex behavior
§  Response Cost is a form of punishment in which the annihilation of an appetitive stimulus always follows the reducing in the occurrence of a response.[5]
§  Myers, Psychology text (300-400)




                                           Article Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning
 

Antecedents ~~



Antecedents

Analysis of antecedents considers the things that come before the behavior, such as setting expectations, goals, objectives, targets etc. They include personal objectives and company values.
Antecedents include triggers of behaviors that prompt action as well as constraints that shape action, indicating what is and what is not acceptable behavior.
Check that employees know what is personally expected of them, both in the outputs that they create and in the way in which they go about creating them (for example by following company values). These should be clearly communicated to the employee. They should also be valid and realistic (in that the employee should be able to perform them), and without internal conflict (for example if the employee is being asked to do things outside of the company values).
When using ABC for job analysis, generic antecedents may be used. For investigations, look for theantecedents of the specific behaviors reported or observed (not that for this, you need to start at the Behavior step). The notion of antecedents may also be used as a stimulation when Brainstorming for possible causes.

Example 1:
·         Antecedent: The teacher asks a student to come to the board to move a magnetic marker.
·         Behavior: Angelina bangs her head on the tray of her wheelchair.
·         Consequence: The teacher goes to Angelina and attempts to redirect and soothe her with a preferred item (a Pretty Pony doll.) The function of the behavior is attention since it takes the teacher's attention away from the other child.

Example 2:

·         Antecedent: Johnny is given a vocational bin and asked to assemble the parts.
·         Behavior: Johnny sweeps the bin with all the parts onto the floor.
·         Consequence: Johnny is taken to time out and the classroom aide picks up the pieces. Johnny has avoided the task, so the function of the behavior is avoidance.
In preparing a functional behavior analysis, special educators, behavior specialists and psychologists use an acronym, ABC, to understand a target behavior. The A stands for antecedent, the B for behavior and the C for consequence.


Tuesday, 15 November 2011

Soundtrack Transformers



SOUNDTRACK TRANSFORMERS

  • "What I've Done"
    Written by Chester Bennington, Rob Bourdon (as Robert Bourdon), Brad Delson,
    Joseph Hahn, Mike Shinoda and Phoenix Farrell (as Dave Farrell)
    Performed by Linkin Park
    Courtesy of Warner Bros. Records Inc.
    By Arrangement with Warner Music Group Film & TV Licensinga

  • "Before It's Too Late (Sam and Mikaela's Theme)"
    Written by Johnny Rzeznik (as John Rzeznik)
    Performed by The Goo Goo Dolls (as Goo Goo Dolls)
    Courtesy of Reprise Records

  • "Sexual Healing"
    Written by Marvin Gaye, Odell Brown and David Ritz
    Performed by Marvin Gaye
    Courtesy of Columbia Records
    By Arrangement with Sony BMG Music Entertainment

  • "Drive"
    Written by Ric Ocasek
    Performed by The Cars
    Courtesy of Elektra Entertainment Group
    By Arrangement with Warner Music Group Film & TV Licensing

  • "Baby Come Back"
    Written by Peter Beckett & J.C. Crowley
    Performed by Player
    Courtesy of Polydor Records Ltd. (U.K.)
    Under license from Universal Music Enterprises

  • "I Got You (I Feel Good)"
    Written & Performed by James Brown
    Courtesy of Universal Records
    Under license from Universal Music Enterprises

  • "Passion's Killing Floor"
    Written by Ville Valo
    Performed by HIM (as H.I.M.)
    Courtesy of Sire Records
    By Arrangement with Warner Music Group Fiom & TV Licensing

  • "Pretty Handsome Awkward"
    Written by Bert McCracken (as Robert C. McCracken), Jeph Howard, Quinn Allman
    Performed by The Used
    Courtesy of Reprise Records
    By Arrangement with Warner Music Group Film & TV Licensing

  • "Doomsday Clock"
    Written by Billy Corgan
    Performed by Smashing Pumpkins
    Courtesy of Reprise Records
    By Arrangement with Warner Music Group Film & TV Licensing

  • "This Moment"
    Written by Dan Donegan, David Draiman and Mike Wengren
    Performed by Disturbed
    Courtesy of Reprise Records
    By Arrangement with Warner Music Group Film & TV Licensing

  • "Battle Without Honor or Humanity"
    Written & Performed by Tomoyasu Hotei
    Courtesy of IRC2 Corporation/Toshiba EMI Limited
    Under license from EMI Film & Television Music

  • "Second to None"
    Written by Takbir Ashir and Ryan McGinn
    Performed by Styles of Beyond featuring Mike Shinoda
    Courtesy of Machineshop Recordings/Warner Bros. Records Inc.
    By Arrangement with Warner Music Group Film & TV Licensing

  • "Ain't No Game"
    Written by Ali Dee (as Ali Theodore) & Zach Danziger
    Performed by Basko
    Courtesy of Deetown Entertainment

  • "Cheesy Cha Cha"
    Written by Mick Parker
    Courtesy of 5 Alarm Music

  • "The Focus"
    Written by Ali Dee (as Ali Theodore), Julian Davis & Aaron Jacob Sandlofer
    Performed by X5
    Courtesy of Deetown Entertainment

  • "Guadalajara"
    Written by Pepe Guízar (as Pepe Gu Zar)
    Performed by Mariachi Vargas de Tecalitlán
    Courtesy of RCA Victor and Sony BMG Music Entertainment Mexico (S.A. de C.V.)
    By Arrangement with Sony BMG Music Entertainment

  • "Technical Difficulties"
    Written by Amir Derakh (as A. Derakh), Ryan Shuck (as R. Shuck), Anthony Valcic (as A. Valcic)
    Performed by Julien-K
    Courtesy of Julien-K
SOUNDTRACK TRANSFORMERS 2 "REVENGE OF THE FALLEN"

Extra songs on the Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen soundtrack album that are not actually in the movie.

SOUNDTRACK TRANSFORMERS 3 "DARK OF THE MOON"

1. Iridescent – Linkin Park
2. Monster – Paramore
3. The Only Hope For Me Is You – My Chemical Romance
4. Faith – Taking Back Sunday
5. The Bottom – Staind
6. Get Thru This – Art Of Dying
7. All That you Are – Goo Goo Dolls
8. Head Above Water – Theory Of A Deadman
9. Set The World On Fire – Black Veil Brides
10. Alive & Awake (Remix) – Skillet
11. Just Got Paid – Mastodon



soundtrack in Step Up 3

1. Club Can’t Handle Me – Flo Rida (Feat. David Guetta)
2. My Own Step – Roscoe Dash & T-Pain (Feat. Fabo)
3. This Instant – Sofia Fresh (Feat. T-Pain)
4. Already Taken – Trey Songz
5. This Girl – Laza
6. Fancy Footwork – Chromeo
7. Beggin’ – MadCon
8. Up – Jessie McCartney
9. Bust Your Windows – Jazmine Sullivan
10. I Can Be A Freak – Estelle
11. Whatchadoin’ – NASA
12. Tear Da Roof Off – Busta Rhymes
13. Move If You Wanna – Mims
14. Shawty Got Moves – Get Cool
15. Irresistible – Wisin y Yandel
16. Let Me C It – Get Cool (Feat. Petey Pablo)