Analysis and discussion "TITRATION EXPERIMENT"

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NURUL AINA PUTERI
113194033
PENDIDIKAN KIMIA INTERNASIONAL 2011
UNIVERSITAS NEGERI SURABAYA

G. ANALYSIS DATA

1.      Titration Weak Acid (C₂H₂O₄) and Stong Base (NaOH)

No	N of C2H2O4 (normal)	V of C2H2O4­ (mL)	mol eq of C2H2O4 (mol)	N of NaOH (normal)	V of NaOH­ (mL)	mol eq of NaOH (mol)
1	0,05	5,0	2,5 x 10-4	0,10	5,0	5,0 x 10-4
2	0,05	5,0	2,5 x 10-4	0,10	4,8	4,8 x 10-4
3	0,05	5,0	2,5 x 10-4	0,10	4,7	4,7 x 10-4

Titration weak acid (C₂H₂O₄) and stong base (NaOH) aim to determine the concentration of NaOH solution at the equivalence point of titration,

by using : M₁ x V₁ x e = M₂ x V₂ x e

            The reaction of C₂H₂O₄ and NaOH:

            C₂H₂O_{4 (aq)} + 2 NaOH _(aq) → Na₂C₂O_{4 (aq)} + 2 H₂O _(l)

            At that reaction, there are 2 moles of ion H⁺ which resulting from every moles of C₂H₂O₄ ­(because 1 mole of ion H⁺ used by 1 mole of NaOH). So that, we be able calculate the concentration of NaOH with a known volume of NaOH.

From the titration of weak acid (C₂H₂O₄) and strong base (NaOH) in this experiment, we get that the average concentration of strong base (NaOH) is 0,1 M.

2.      Titration Stong Acid (HCℓ) and Strong Base (NaOH)

No	N of HCℓ (normal)	V of HCℓ (mL)	N of NaOH (normal)	V of NaOH­ (mL)	Total Volume (ml)
1	0,090	5,0	0,100	4,5	9,5
2	0,112	5,0	0,100	5,6	10,6
3	0,088	5,0	0,100	4,4	9,4

The reaction between HCl and NaOH:

            HCl _(aq) + NaOH _(aq) → NaCl _(aq) + H₂O _(l)

Based on that reaction, HCl will have complete ionization in water. And the reaction will be like this:

            HCl _(aq) → H⁺ _(aq) + Cl^- _(aq)

The same thing happened to NaOH:

            NaOH _(aq) → Na⁺ _(aq) + OH^- _(aq)

The neutralization reaction

H⁺ _(aq) + OH^- _(aq)    H₂O_(ℓ)

After complete neutralization of HCℓ, the amount of NaOH left is 0. This is a simple calculation because it involves a complete neutralization reaction and the salt (NaCℓ) does not undergo hydrolysis. At the equivalence point, (H⁺) = (OH^-) and the pH solution is 7,00.

To calculate the concentration of HCl solution, we use:

M₁ x V₁ = M₂ x V₂

From the titration of strong acid (HCl) and strong base (NaOH) in this experiment, we get that the average concentration of strong acid (HCl) is 0,096 M.

3.      Titration Strong Acid (HCℓ) and Strong Base (NaOH) with Naturally Indicator

No	N of HCℓ (normal)	V of HCℓ (mL)	N of NaOH (normal)	V of NaOH­ (mL)	Total Volume (mL)
1	0,086	5,0	0,100	4,3	9,3
2	0,084	5,0	0,100	4,2	9,2
3	0,104	5,0	0,100	5,2	10,2

                       

                        In this last experiment, we use curcumin to be indicator. Curcumin is yellow in acidic and dark yellow in basic solution, but if strong base, it become dark brown. And, because the pH range of curcumic is >7 (more than 7), it’ll base indicator, and it can used as indicator of titration, and with it, we can determine the equivalent point when the end point finally reached. And so, we can concluded that when the colour of the solution change into dark yellow, that signing if the solution has reached the end point, and the pH of the solution after that is more than 7 but it didn’t reach 14 (become strong base).

From the titration of strong acid (HCl) and strong base (NaOH) in this experiment and using natural indicator, that is curcumin, then we get that the average concentration of strong acid (HCl) is 0,091 M.

H.  DISCUSSION

Ø  THE CHANGE COLOUR

            In our experiment, we used some solution, such as NaOH, HCl, C2H2O4, phenolphthalein indicator and plant extract. All solution, except plant extract at first time is colourless. So do when acid (C₂H₂O₄ and HCl) added with phenolphthalein. But, when acid added with indicator then dropped by base (NaOH), the colour of solution became pink. This occurs because phenolphthalein is indicator of base, if phenolphthalein dropped into acid, it’ll be colourless, but if dropped into base, the colour become red. And in this case, in our experiment, the changing of colour is signing that the solution in the equivalent point.

In plant extract (curcumic plant) the colour is yellow, but after dropped with NaOH, the colour became dark yellow. This occurs because curcumic extract when dropped with acid solution became bright yellow, and if dropped with base solution became dark yellow. So, the signing colour to knowing that the solution at equivalent point is if the solution change into dark yellow.

In our experiment, the entire change colour of all solution is suitable with the hypothesis.

Ø  THE CONCENTRATION OF ACID BASE SOLUTION

The aim of this experiment is to determine the concentration of acid base solution by neutralization reaction that is titration.

We can calculate or determine the concentration of NaOH solution and HCl solution, which first by knowing the volume of NaOH then we can determine the concentration of NaOH with oxalic acid (C₂H₂O₄), when the titration process between the equivalence point and at the end point, which is there’s changing colour of the solution became pink (because of there are phenolphthalein that be an indicator if the solution at the end point) like in the basic theory. But when we repeated in the third experiment (determining the concentration of HCl by using plant indicator), experiment for the second, we got different volume, that didn’t same with the first and the third. This occurs because maybe caused by our mistake when we adding HCl into the conical flask more than 5 mL, so it reached end point must with the large volume of NaOH too or maybe we get difficulties when determined the end point of the titration.

I.                   CONCLUSION

From the experiment we had done, first, we got the concentration of NaOH with C₂H₂O₄ solution using phenolphthalein indicator that is 0,1 M. Second, we got the concentration of HCl with NaOH solution using phenolphthalein indicator that is 0,096 M. And the third, we got the concentration of HCl with NaOH solution using plant extract that is 0,091 M. And as we had calculated, the concentration of HCl difference between using phenolphthalein and using plant extract is not far.

REFFERENCES

Brady, E.James.General Chemistry:Principle and Structure.5^th Ed.2006.USA:John Wiley&Sons Inc.

Chang, Raymond.2005. General Chemistry : The Essential Concepts.3^rd Ed. USA: Mc Graw Hill

ATTACHMENT

C2H2O4 added with phenolphthalein      →

Hak Asasi Manusia ~~

Nurul Aina Puteri / 113194033

Pendidikan Kimia Internasional 2011

Universitas Negeri Surabaya

HUMAN RIGHTS

F.         EQUATION OF RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS

            The equation of every human in front of law is “the equation in doing every obligations and getting their rights”.

Person has an obligation to work or do something nicely, and entitled to obtain a balanced result of what he has done/doing.

Obligations is a necessity. Obligation to perform, fulfill or do to the things given to him/her.

For example: we must pay the taxes, that means we have to carry out the payment.

Rights means allowed. Rights is something that should be possessed by the power of the human.

There is Two types of RIGHT :

ABSOLUTE RIGHTS            : right authorizes a man to do a deed, which rights can be given to anybody else and instead people should respect those rights, e.g. right to life, freedom rights, property rights, and others

RELATIVE RIGHTS             : right authorizes a man to demand that others give something, do something or not do something

                                    Example: A buyer entitled to the goods purchased, but he must pay the price of that goods to the seller.

THE BASIC PRINCIPLE OF IMPLEMENTATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS:

Balance between rights and obligations, because the obligation is part of the rights of others.

obligation to respect the rights of others -> RULES / NORMS -> NORMS OF JUSTICE

In practice, absolute right or relative right that human own, they have respect to the rights of other. For example, we are free to live in any way, but others were free to choose his own way.

In every society there is always a rule or norms which must obeyed by every people, especially to self control. To create balance between and obligation, necessary awareness the norms. This is to give  awareness to every single thing which have be his/her rights

Hak Asasi Manusia

NAMA     : NURUL AINA PUTERI

NIM         : 113194033

KELAS    : P. KIMIA INTERNASIONAL 2011

UNIVERSITAS NEGERI SURABAYA


1.      Apakah yang dimaksud dengan HAM?

Jawab :

HAM (Hak Asasi Manusia) adalah  hak-hak yang dimiliki oleh setiap manusia sesuai dengan kodratnya yang telah dimiliki sejak manusia dalam kandungan, bila tidak ada hak tersebut, kita tidak dapat hidup sebagai manusia


2.      Jelaskan secara singkat sejarah HAM di dunia!

Jawab:

Perlindungan HAM telah dimulai oleh bangsa Inggris pada abad ke-13 (1215) dengan ditandatanganinya “Magna Charta” yang berisi hak yang diberikan kepada kaum bangsawan dan gereja. Kemudian tahun 1628 “Pettion of Rights” oleh Raja Charles I. Disusul oleh “Bill of Rights” yang ditandatangani oleh Raja William III pada tahun 1689. Setelah itu, filusuf-filusuf yaitu Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, dan Monstequieu, mempengaruhi perkembangan perlindungan hak asasi di Eropa, terutama di Perancis. Hingga pada akhirnya, tahun 1780, Rousseau melahirkan “Deklarasi hak manusia dan Negara”, “hak atas kebebasan”, “harta”, “keamanan”, dan “periawanan terhadap penindasan”. Setelah kejadian itu, perkembangan perlindungan hak asasi meluas ke Amerika. Penandatanganan naskah untuk memperjuangkan hak asasi oleh Negara Amerika dan Perancis terjadi pada tahun 1789, setelah itu di Amerika dikeluarkan undang-undang hak (Bill of Rights) yang pada akhirnya menjadi bagian dari undang-undang dasar Amerika pada tahun 1791.


3.      Jelaskan secara singkat munculnya HAM di Indonesia!

Jawab:

Dalam kebudayaan Indonesia telah ada makna tentang pengakuan hak asasi manusia. Yaitu dalam tradisi ‘Hak Pepe’, yaitu dimana hak warga desa diakui dan dihormati oleh penguasa, misalnya saja mengungkapkan pendapat. Sebelum ini, sebenarnya HAM di Indonesia sudah ada sejak lama, misalnya saja HAM di Sulawesi Selatan yang ditulis dalam buku-buku adat (Lontarak). Antara lain dinyatakan dalam buku Lontarak (Tomatindo di Lagana) bahwa apabila raja berselisih faham dengan Dewan Adat, maka Raja harus mengalah. Tetapi apabila para Dewam Adat sendiri berselisih, maka rakyatlah yang memustuskan. Pada dasarnya, asas hak asasi manusia di Indonesia telah lama diterapka. Dan dengan demikian pula dapat disimpulkan bahwa Hak Asasi Manusia telah lama lahir di Negara Indonesia. Dan munculnya HAM di Indonesia setelah kemerdekaan juga mula bersumber pada pancasila yaitu Hak Asasi Manusia mendapat jaminan kuat dari falsafah bangsa.Bersumber pada pancasila dimana Hak Asasi Manusia juga harus memperhatikan garis-garis yang telah ditentukan dalam falsafah pancasila. Dan pada saat ini HAM di Indonesia juga telah dicantumkan dalam UUD 1945.


4.      Bagaimana supaya HAM dapat berjalan dengan baik?

Jawab:

-     Megutamakan program penegakan hukum dan HAM yang harus dilakukan secara tegas, tidak diskriminatif dan konsisten.

-     Melaksanakan kegiatan internasional, secara bilateral, regional maupun multirateral.

-     Meningkatkan kualitas pendidikan di suatu wilayah (Negara) tentu akan meningkatkan pengetahuan, moral, dan sumber daya mausia negara itu sendiri. Sehingga, akan lebih mudah untuk menjalankan HAM (Hak Asasi Manusia) di suatu wilayah secara efisien dan otomatis.

5.      Berilah contoh kasus pelanggaran HAM yang ada di Indonesia saat ini!

Berikan komentar saudara!

Jawab:

Pelanggaran Hak Asasi Manusia terhadap anak.

Di Indonesia saat ini sedang banyak kasus yang menyimpang moral yang sebagian besar karna dipengaruhi oleh budaya luar yang masuk ke Indonesia, contohnya saja free-sex. Free-sex sekarang sangat marak di Indonesia, mulai dari kota-kota kecil hingga kota besar, yang sebagian besar memungkinkan adanya aborsi, pembuangan anak, penelantaran anak, dll. Bayi yang dibuang bahkan dibunuh adalah contoh pelanggaran Hak Asasi Manusia yang ada di Negara Indonesia ini. Dari kasus ini 68% bayi meninggal sedangkan sisanya masih hidup diasuh masyarakat atau dititip dipanti asuhan.


6.      Berilah contoh kasus pelanggaran HAM yang marak di dunia saat ini!

Berikan komentar saudara!

Jawab:

Contoh pelanggaran HAM yang ada di dunia, misalnya rasisme (perbedaan ras) dan human trafficking (perdagangan manusia).

Mengenai ‘rasisme’, di dunia ini, terutama bangsa kulit putih selalu membedakan bangsa kulit hitam. Bangsa kulit putih selalu menganggap ras/bangsanya lebih baik dibandingkan bangsa kulit hitam, sehingga membuat perbedaan dan pada akhirnya bangsa kulit hitam dikucilkan. Menurut saya ini adalah pelanggaran HAM yang termasuk berat, karena manusia diciptan dengan derajat yang sama di mata Tuhan. Seharusnya bangsa kulit hitam mendapat hak dan kehormatan yang sama, tapi ternyata tidak demikian. Dan tidak ada yang salah dengan kulit hitam.

Mengenai ‘human trafficking’ yaitu perdagangan ilegal manusia untuk tujuan reproduksiperbudakan, eksploitasi seksual komersial, kerja paksa, atau bentukmodern dari perbudakan. Dan mayoritas adalah wanita dan anak-anak. Telah diketahui bahwa hal seperti ini adalah bentuk pelanggaran HAM yang sangat marak di dunia, dan menurut saya, pelanggaran ini dapat dihentikan apabila ada kerja sama antara pemerintah dengan masyarakat dalam suatu Negara tersebut.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, schedules of reinforcement are an important component of the learning process. When and how often we reinforce a behavior can have a dramatic impact on the strength and rate of the response.

A schedule of reinforcement is basically a rule stating which instances of a behavior will be reinforced. In some case, a behavior might be reinforced every time it occurs. Sometimes, a behavior might not be reinforced at all. Either positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement might be used, depending on the situation. In both cases, the goal of reinforcement is always to strengthen the behavior and increase the likelihood that it will occur again in the future.

In real-world settings, behaviors are probably not going to be reinforced each and every time they occur. For situations where you are purposely trying to train and reinforce an action, such as in the classroom, in sports or in animal training, you might opt to follow a specific reinforcement schedule. As you'll see below, some schedules are best suited to certain types of training situations. In some cases, training might call for starting out with one schedule and switching to another once the desired behavior has been taught.

Certain schedules of reinforcement may be more effective in specific situations. There are two types of reinforcement schedules:

1. Continuous Reinforcement

In continuous reinforcement, the desired behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs. Generally, this schedule is best used during the initial stages of learning in order to create a strong association between the behavior and the response. Once the response if firmly attached, reinforcement is usually switched to a partial reinforcement schedule.

2. Partial Reinforcement

In partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part of the time. Learned behaviors are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement, but the response is more resistant toextinction.

There are four schedules of partial reinforcement:

1.      Fixed-ratio schedules are those where a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses. This schedule produces a high, steady rate of responding with only a brief pause after the delivery of the reinforcer.

2.      Variable-ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule creates a high steady rate of responding. Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule.

3.      Fixed-interval schedules are those where the first response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. This schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval, but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer.

4.      Variable-interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. This schedule produces a slow, steady rate of response.

Choosing a Schedule

Deciding when to reinforce a behavior can depend upon a number of factors. In cases where you are specifically trying to teach a new behavior, a continuous schedule is often a good choice. Once the behavior has been learned, switching to a partial schedule is often preferable.

Realistically, reinforcing a behavior every single time it occurs can be difficult and requires a great deal of attention and resources. Partial schedules not only tend to lead to behaviors that are more resistant to extinction, they also reduce the risk that the subject will become satiated. If the reinforcer being used is no longer desired or rewarding, the subject may stop performing the desired behavior.

 Article Source: http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/schedules.htm

Operant conditioning

Operant Conditioning 

Operant conditioning is a form of learning during which an individual modifies the occurrence and form of its own behavior due to theconsequences of the behavior. Operant conditioning is distinguished from classical conditioning (also called respondent conditioning) in that operant conditioning deals with the modification of "voluntary behavior" or operant behavior. Operant behavior "operates" on the environment and is maintained by its consequences, while classical conditioning deals with the conditioning of reflexive (reflex) behaviors which are elicited by antecedent conditions. Behaviors conditioned via a classical conditioning procedure are not maintained by consequences.

Reinforcement, Punishment, And Extinction

Reinforcement and punishment, the core tools of operant conditioning, are either positive (delivered following a response), or negative (withdrawn following a response). This creates a total of four basic consequences, with the addition of a fifth procedure known as extinction(i.e. no change in consequences following a response).

It is important to note that actors are not spoken of as being reinforced, punished, or extinguished; it is the actions that are reinforced, punished, or extinguished. Additionally, reinforcement, punishment, and extinction are not terms whose use is restricted to the laboratory. Naturally occurring consequences can also be said to reinforce, punish, or extinguish behavior and are not always delivered by people.

§  Reinforcement is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with greater frequency.

§  Punishment is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with less frequency.

§  Extinction is caused by the lack of any consequence following a behavior. When a behavior is inconsequential (i.e., producing neither favorable nor unfavorable consequences) it will occur with less frequency. When a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced with either positive or negative reinforcement, it leads to a decline in that behavior.

Four contexts of operant conditioning

Here the terms positive and negative are not used in their popular sense, but rather: positive refers to addition, and negative refers to subtraction.

What is added or subtracted may be either reinforcement or punishment. Hence positive punishment is sometimes a confusing term, as it denotes the "addition" of a stimulus or increase in the intensity of a stimulus that is aversive (such as spanking or an electric shock). The four procedures are:

1.     Positive reinforcement (Reinforcement): occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus that is appetitive or rewarding, increasing the frequency of that behavior. In the Skinner box experiment, a stimulus such as food or sugar solution can be delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever.

2.     Negative reinforcement (Escape): occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus, thereby increasing that behavior's frequency. In the Skinner box experiment, negative reinforcement can be a loud noise continuously sounding inside the rat's cage until it engages in the target behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is removed.

3.     Positive punishment (Punishment) (also called "Punishment by contingent stimulation"): occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus, such as introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.

4.     Negative punishment (Penalty) (also called "Punishment by contingent withdrawal"): occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.

Operant conditioning to change human behavior

1.     State Goal (aims for the study)

2.     Monitor Behavior (log conditions)

3.     Reinforce desired behavior(give reward for proper behavior)

4.     Reduce incentives to perform undesirable behavior

Also:

§  Avoidance learning is a type of learning in which a certain behavior results in the cessation of an aversive stimulus. For example, performing the behavior of shielding one's eyes when in the sunlight (or going outdoors) will help avoid the aversive stimulation of having light in one's eyes.

§  Extinction occurs when a behavior (response) that had previously been reinforced is no longer effective. In the Skinner box experiment, this is the rat pushing the lever and being rewarded with a food pellet several times, and then pushing the lever again and never receiving a food pellet again. Eventually the rat would cease pushing the lever.

§  Noncontingent reinforcement refers to delivery of reinforcing stimuli regardless of the organism's (aberrant) behavior. The idea is that the target behavior decreases because it is no longer necessary to receive the reinforcement. This typically entails time-based delivery of stimuli identified as maintaining aberrant behavior, which serves to decrease the rate of the target behavior. As no measured behavior is identified as being strengthened, there is controversy surrounding the use of the term noncontingent "reinforcement".

§  Shaping is a form of operant conditioning in which the increasingly accurate approximations of a desired response are reinforced.

§  Chaining is an instructional procedure which involves reinforcing individual responses occurring in a sequence to form a complex behavior

§  Response Cost is a form of punishment in which the annihilation of an appetitive stimulus always follows the reducing in the occurrence of a response.^[5]

§  Myers, Psychology text (300-400)

                                           Article Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning

 

Antecedents ~~

Antecedents

Analysis of antecedents considers the things that come before the behavior, such as setting expectations, goals, objectives, targets etc. They include personal objectives and company values.

Antecedents include triggers of behaviors that prompt action as well as constraints that shape action, indicating what is and what is not acceptable behavior.

Check that employees know what is personally expected of them, both in the outputs that they create and in the way in which they go about creating them (for example by following company values). These should be clearly communicated to the employee. They should also be valid and realistic (in that the employee should be able to perform them), and without internal conflict (for example if the employee is being asked to do things outside of the company values).

When using ABC for job analysis, generic antecedents may be used. For investigations, look for theantecedents of the specific behaviors reported or observed (not that for this, you need to start at the Behavior step). The notion of antecedents may also be used as a stimulation when Brainstorming for possible causes.

Example 1:

·         Antecedent: The teacher asks a student to come to the board to move a magnetic marker.

·         Behavior: Angelina bangs her head on the tray of her wheelchair.

·         Consequence: The teacher goes to Angelina and attempts to redirect and soothe her with a preferred item (a Pretty Pony doll.) The function of the behavior is attention since it takes the teacher's attention away from the other child.

Example 2:

·         Antecedent: Johnny is given a vocational bin and asked to assemble the parts.

·         Behavior: Johnny sweeps the bin with all the parts onto the floor.

·         Consequence: Johnny is taken to time out and the classroom aide picks up the pieces. Johnny has avoided the task, so the function of the behavior is avoidance.

In preparing a functional behavior analysis, special educators, behavior specialists and psychologists use an acronym, ABC, to understand a target behavior. The A stands for antecedent, the B for behavior and the C for consequence.

Article source : http://changingminds.org/disciplines/hr/performance_management/abc_analysis.htm